Love Without Time
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The world was not so very different from the way it had been before. The trees were still there, and a few of them even bore fruit or nuts in their branches, but there were now no animals to eat that food, nor any birds to fly up into those branches for nesting material.
All living things had ceased to exist except man himself, who lived on as though nothing had happened at all: he made his fires and cooked his food with them; he ate what grew upon the earth—or rather he did not eat anything which grew upon the land because everything else had died out, leaving only him alive to do so.
He slept under coverings woven from reeds and grasses; he used tools fashioned by his own hands instead of stones and wood. And yet this man, unlike every other creature, knew how to make fire without flint or tinder-wood!
It seemed incredible that such a thing should be possible: but just as he could take an axe to stone and shape it according to his will, so he took the simplest materials available—the ashes of dead leaves, twigs charred brown, dry moss—and through sheer force of mind produced a flame.
No animal could have done so, since they lacked the intelligence necessary to understand that heat must drive off cold; and certainly, none of them could have learned the trick of making fire themselves. But then again, none of them had ever needed to learn it either!
It is hard to say whether human beings would have survived if they had continued to live in the same fashion as always after the sun went down, or whether some change had come over them when night fell.
We know that men became more active during the day than at night, and we can assume that they also slept less often in order to seize the daylight hours fully, whereas previously they might sleep whenever they liked.
In addition, they began to build huts and shelters against the rain and wind: once again, this was something new, though no doubt the need for such shelter arose from the fact that summer days were longer and warmer than winter nights.
But perhaps these changes were due solely to the fact that the moon rose later each evening, and set earlier in the morning.
For although there are certain periods of time when neither the sun nor the moon shines brightly enough to cast shadows, both shine continuously throughout the rest of the year: therefore, one cannot go outside during the dark half of the month without carrying a light source with one.
Indeed, we may suppose that before long people realized that it was better to carry torches in their pockets than to risk being caught unawares by darkness. This is why man built houses and shelters, and it is likely that within a short space of time they even learned to use metals to make weapons and tools since iron ore has a high melting point while copper melts easily.
As a result, they acquired the ability to kill other creatures. It seems probable too that they discovered ways of preserving meat and fish by drying and salting them, for otherwise, they would soon have starved to death. These discoveries led inevitably to the development of agriculture, for the cultivation of crops requires soil rich in nutrients and free from weeds.
And even more important than these developments was the discovery of writing, which meant that records could be kept, instructions passed on, and knowledge preserved.
The Egyptians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Chinese, Indians, and Japanese were all highly civilized peoples who possessed written languages; and it is difficult to imagine how much progress humanity would have made if they had never found the means of recording events and ideas.
If a person does not write down what he wants to remember or tell others about it afterward, then eventually he forgets it, and so loses the chance of learning from his mistakes. Writing thus enables us to avoid repeating past errors and thereby gain experience, wisdom, and success.
In many respects, the lives of our forebears differed little from ours, though they did possess certain advantages over us. They did not suffer from tooth decay and gingivitis, nor from diseases caused by parasites, bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Their eyesight remained good until old age so that they could read books and newspapers without difficulty.
Yet they could see clearly only objects placed close to their faces, and they could not distinguish colors well unless the object was illuminated by sunlight. Furthermore, they suffered from headaches and dizziness and experienced pain in the head and stomach and sometimes vomited blood.
All these symptoms indicate that they did not enjoy perfect health, but merely the kind of physical condition that most moderns consider normal.
The reason for this state of affairs is quite simple: the natural selection process tends to favor those individuals whose bodies resist disease and other serious illnesses. A sickly individual is unlikely to survive long enough to reproduce successfully, so the strong tend to become stronger, while the weak die out.
Sickness results from a breakdown of the body’s defenses, and a weakening of its defensive mechanisms. Some of this weakness arises from genetic factors, for these determine the strength of various organs and tissues, including the immune system itself.
Others arise because of environmental influences, such as diet, exercise, and exposure to germs. Therefore, in order to acquire immunity against sickness, one needs to eat food that strengthens the body rather than depletes it, engage in regular exercises that promote proper circulation, and spend much time outdoors where there is plenty of sunshine.
And finally, one must refrain from indulging in sexual practices that weaken the body further.
This is precisely why the ancestors of today’s Europeans lived shorter lives than we do now. Modern medicine has given us the power to prolong life indefinitely, but only when we take advantage of this opportunity will we be able to realize our full potential.
Of course, it is possible to maintain an artificial existence through drugs and surgery, but ultimately this leads nowhere, for it does nothing to improve the quality of life. Only when we learn to follow the advice of Hippocrates and keep ourselves healthy and fit shall we really be living.
***
Although the human race began to develop independently in different parts of the world, at first no single society was dominant over all the others. There was considerable intermixing between the inhabitants of distant lands, especially after sea travel became common.
In addition, numerous migrations took place, causing entire populations to move into new territories. Thus, some groups of people migrated from Europe to North America, Asia to Africa, and so forth. But although migration was widespread, it usually involved only small numbers of people, and rarely changed the way in which civilization developed.
For example, the Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the fifth century AD left a lasting mark on the island’s culture, yet they themselves did not remain permanently resident there. Instead, they returned to Germany each year to collect timber and other goods necessary for building ships, and to trade with the indigenous population.
Nor were they the only people to leave behind them traces of their presence. After leaving Britain, they sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to colonize other islands, but also to settle in remote areas of Europe. This was the beginning of their expansion into the continental territory, which continued throughout subsequent centuries.
Eventually, however, the Germans ceased to expand beyond their original settlements and instead settled down to live off the land.
By doing so, they established permanent colonies in places like England, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Russia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, Sicily, Malta, Crete, Cyprus, Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, New Guinea, Australia, Antarctica, and even South America. The descendants of these settlers are known collectively as “the Germans.”
Most of the people who founded cities and built civilizations had already been conquered or absorbed by more powerful neighbors before the appearance of the Germanic migrations. However, the Germans brought new ideas to these societies, thereby enabling them to advance technologically and politically.
Many of the innovations adopted by these new conquerors came about thanks to contact with the Romans. These included the use of writing, the invention of coins, and the establishment of a legal code based on Roman law.
As a result, the Romans gradually lost control over the vast empire that they had created. Meanwhile, the Germans set up empires of their own, and eventually expanded them to cover large tracts of Eurasia.
These events occurred thousands of years ago, but today our descendants still bear the marks of the impact made by these newcomers. For instance, the languages spoken in many regions of Europe have a Germanic origin.
Moreover, several cultures that existed prior to the arrival of the Germans (such as the Celtic and Slavic) borrowed aspects of the Germanic worldview and incorporated them into their cultural heritage.
In addition, most European countries possess a rich tradition of scholarship inspired by ancient Greek thought, and many of their universities trace their origins back to the great schools established by the Greeks. Finally, the Germanic influence can be seen in the architecture of buildings around the world, particularly in the Middle East and Central Asia.
All of this suggests that the Germanic migrations played a pivotal role in shaping the history of humanity. Yet despite its importance, little is actually known about how these movements unfolded. It seems likely, therefore, that further study of the subject could shed light on the reasons for the decline of the Roman Empire, the rise of Christianity, and the spread of Islam.
Such knowledge would help us understand better both the past and present.
The earliest historical records concerning the Germanic migrations date back almost two thousand years, but they provide few clues regarding what happened in the intervening period. Nevertheless, a number of traditions exist which suggest that the movement originated in northern Europe and then swept southward toward the Mediterranean Sea.
One such story claims that the Norsemen crossed the Baltic Sea and landed on the shores of Ireland in 870 AD. Another tells of a group of Danes who arrived in Scotland sometime later, establishing a colony near Edinburgh. A third legend tells of a band of warriors crossing the English Channel and landing on the coast of Normandy.
According to this account, they proceeded inland until reaching Paris, whereupon they met resistance from local inhabitants who refused to accept their rule. Although these stories are unlikely to offer much insight into the truth of things, they serve well enough as illustrations of the general direction of the movement.
However, the bulk of the evidence relating to the Germanic migrations comes from texts written long after the fact. During the ninth century, the Franks (or Frankish kingdom), an alliance of Germanic-speaking peoples, began conquering nearby lands, including southern Gaul.
They subsequently ruled over all of western Europe for nearly four hundred years. Consequently, historians have taken particular note of their activities while compiling chronicles and other accounts.
The first detailed description of the Germanic migrations appears in the annals of Charlemagne, who reigned over the Franks between 800 and 814 CE. He wrote:
In those times there was a war among the people called Franks; they were very numerous and came out of Germany. Their leader, named Charles, went to Rome with his army, hoping to get support from Pope Gregory I. But when he got to Rome, he found it full of unbelievers, and so returned home without getting any help.
After this, the Franks divided themselves into three parts, one part going north, another eastwards, and the last westwards. The northern section went to Burgundy, and thence to Aquitaine and Flanders, and finally settled down in the country now occupied by Holland and Belgium. This division took place soon after the death of Saint Martin, Bishop of Tours.
This passage provides no real information about the exact location of the places mentioned, nor does it indicate whether the Franks conquered them or merely lived side by side with the natives. Furthermore, it offers nothing at all about the circumstances surrounding the migration itself.
Nonetheless, it reveals that the Franks were not the only ones involved in this movement. Charlemagne’s reference to “the people called Franks” implies that others also participated in the invasion, although we do not know exactly whom.
Another important source of information is the Annales Cambriae, a collection of Anglo-Saxon chronicles compiled by the monk Bede between 731 and 760 CE. The author describes how the Saxons invaded Britain during the reign of King Oswald (who ruled from 633–668).
In contrast to Charlemagne, however, he mentions neither the Franks nor anyone else in connection with this event. Instead, he simply states that the Saxons appeared suddenly and attacked the Britons. To make matters worse, the invaders suffered heavy casualties before being driven off.
Bede’s account makes clear that the Saxons did not originate in Britain. From what we know of British history, it seems probable that they were original settlers from continental Europe – perhaps even the same people who had previously inhabited Scandinavia.
However, the details remain unclear because no contemporary sources mention the presence of any foreign tribes in the region. Moreover, most of the existing histories relate events occurring hundreds of years earlier than the time of the Saxon invasions.
Finally, some scholars believe that the term “Saxon” may refer to multiple groups of different origins. For example, the name might be derived from the Old English word skænh, meaning “warrior.” Alternatively, it could come from the Germanic words sax, meaning “sword,” and hōc, meaning “people”; thus, the people of the sword became known as the Saxons.
It has been suggested that the Germanic migrants spread throughout Europe through a series of interconnected military campaigns similar to those conducted by the Romans centuries ago. Other observers, however, believe that the movement consisted primarily of independent bands of raiders, each pursuing its own goals.
Regardless of how it actually occurred, the Germanic migrations resulted in the formation of many new kingdoms that eventually dominated much of Western Europe.
***
Although the Germanic migrations represented a major turning point in European history, they left a little trace behind them. No archaeological sites have ever been discovered near the former locations of these settlements.
The few artifacts made by the native inhabitants are often indistinguishable from objects produced elsewhere. On top of that, the climate along the Danube basin remained relatively stable until the beginning of the twentieth century. Therefore, if anything existed here prior to the arrival of the Germans, it must either have been destroyed or buried beneath layers of sediment.
As far as can be determined, the earliest traces of human activity date back only several thousand years, to the Neolithic period. A large number of stone tools and weapons dating from this era have been unearthed at various sites across the continent.
Many of these items bear similarities to those used by modern-day Europeans, suggesting that humans living here initially migrated from somewhere farther south. Although there is still debate regarding the precise nature of this migration, there seem to have been two main waves of settlement.
One group arrived around 3500 BCE, bringing with them agriculture and animal husbandry. The second wave followed sometime later, arriving between 3000 and 2000 BC. During this period, the newcomers introduced metals such as copper and bronze, which greatly influenced their culture.
These innovations allowed for greater specialization within society, creating an entirely new social hierarchy. By the end of the Bronze Age, cultures stretching from Spain in the west to Russia in the east had developed independently of one another.
During the Iron Age, the population expanded dramatically due to increased agricultural output. According to the latest estimates, approximately 15 million individuals lived in Celtic lands alone during this time. Some archaeologists believe that the expansion of farming communities led to the development of distinct tribal identities.
This was particularly true among the Celts, whose languages differed considerably from those spoken by neighboring peoples. As a result, the Celts began using their own writing systems, separating themselves further from other cultures.
The Roman Empire emerged out of the ashes of the collapse of the Greek city-states after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE. At first, Rome focused on conquering territories in Greece and Asia Minor. After several decades, however, the empire turned its attention toward Gaul, where it established a permanent base in the province of Gallia Narbonensis.
Around 509 CE, Emperor Justinian I declared himself emperor of all the provinces under his control. Over the next century, the Romans extended their influence over almost the entire Mediterranean Basin. They also conquered North Africa and Syria, forming the bulk of today’s the Middle East. Not long afterward, they launched expeditions into Central Europe.
In 43 AD, the legions defeated the last remaining Germanic tribe, the Alamanni, in northern Germany. Shortly thereafter, Julius Caesar marched on Britannia, which he annexed shortly afterward. In 52 AD, Augustus founded the city of Constantinople as the capital of the Roman world.
Thus, the Romans took possession of both sides of the Dardanelles Strait, establishing a firm foothold in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Soon enough, they occupied Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Arabia, India, China, and Japan.
After the fall of the western part of the Roman Empire in 476, the Eastern half continued to function for nearly three hundred more years. When the Arab armies invaded the Levant in 638, the Byzantines finally lost control of the region. However, the Arabs were unable to conquer Constantinople itself, and the Byzantine Empire remained intact.
Nevertheless, the prolonged struggle against the Muslim invaders forced the emperors to divert resources away from their overseas conquests. Consequently, the empire fell victim to numerous internal conflicts, culminating in the sack of Constantinople in 1453.
With the exception of Crete, Cyprus, and the Dodecanese Islands in southern Greece, the Roman Empire was no longer a political entity. Instead, it would become known simply as “the West.”
The End